But how familiar people are about the history and rise of semiconductors is a different matter. To provide more context on these indispensable materials that power everything from household appliances to mobile phones, this series will trace back the origins of semiconductors and explain why they became such a significant part of everyday life as we know it.

Starting with ‘Computers and Transistors,’ a total of six chapters including ‘Process and Oxidation,’ ‘Photolithography,’ ’Etching,’ ‘Deposition,’ and ‘Metal Wiring’ will help explain the nature and processes of semiconductors. This series will put a special focus on the correlations between all of these technologies.

The Advent of Computers

As people continuously look for ways to simplify their day-to-day activities at home, work, and wherever they need to go, the need for technological devices has always been on the minds of innovative thinkers. Starting with simple machines that only knew how to make basic calculations, people eventually progressed to developing more advanced and accurate machines that would become of more practical use.

Inventing such a machine required tremendous contributions from various people. A major experiment that came out from one of these individuals was Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine in 1871. Users could insert a thin plate called a punched card into the machine and perform a numerical calculation. When inserted into the machine, the inner analysis engine repeats various arithmetic operations according to specific commands and a result value is printed out from another part of the machine.

Although the Analytical Engine was never manufactured, it stands as an interesting case study. First, the Analytical Engine has all the elements of a computer. The punched card and the part of the engine where the result value is printed out is the same concept as the computer memory. So, the Analytical Engine is essentially the primitive CPU^* (Central Processing Unit).

^*CPU: Abbreviation for Central Processing Unit. A device that acts as the computer’s brain.

Simply put, the Analytical Engine was a computer that operated on steam and consisted of a memory and CPU unit made from pieces of metal and wood. Consequently, we can assume that people in the past knew how computers structurally functioned. It’s also clear that computers and ‘electronic circuits’ are completely different concepts. Therefore, there’s a need to know why electronic circuits became the heart of the modern computer.

Electrically Controlled Computers

Electronic circuits have advantages over other devices based on steam, manpower, or hydraulic power, because the control of signals is fast and efficient. Looking at steam, reaction rates are slow, as steam needs to physically reach a specific location. Furthermore, since steam is transmitted at a high pressure, the pipes need to be thick and, overall, it lacks efficiency. Now, let’s suppose there’s a device that opens and closes its door automatically when a rope is pulled. If steam is used as the energy source here, the operator will have to open the boiler valve and wait for the high-pressure steam to push the door in order for it to be closed. But when electricity is the energy source, a button and a motor is all that is required. The size of the entire device becomes smaller, while energy efficiency and reaction speed both increase.

▲ Figure 1. A steam-based automatic door (left) and an electric automatic door (right)

With the invention of electricity, controlling computers with it became the general trend. After numerous attempts to create an electricity-based computer, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was eventually made. Unlike the Analytical Engine that used gears and steam, the ENIAC operated through the combination of a type of light bulb called the vacuum tube and various electronic circuits. By looking at the components of the ENIAC that resemble light bulbs, it’s quite clear that its energy source was electricity.

▲ Figure 2. ENIAC (Source: View Original Document)

The ENIAC was a huge computer that almost took up a whole room and used up to 170 kW of electricity, equivalent to operating 170 microwave ovens. Nevertheless, it was able to accomplish numerous tasks that were needed back then. Its operation speed was still a lot faster as it used more than 170,000 vacuum tubes instead of gears that squeaked and moved slowly. Since its development, the ENIAC contributed towards achieving many milestones, including formulation of the simulation methodology.

However, we know that the ENIAC’s performance was not even a match for the portable calculators of the 1990s. Efficiency was a major issue, and it wasn’t possible to supply these commodities on a large scale due to their size. This is why the world needed another innovation called the transistor.

The Emergence of Transistors

As aforementioned, the ENIAC was built using a vacuum tube similar to a light bulb. But it’s important to know why these devices were needed in the first place. People knew that the ability to control signals would lead to the creation of some type of computing device, such as the automatic steam door that we looked at above.

Thus, a computer is basically a device that adds a lot of inputs and outputs to an automatic steam door along with various logical structures that are added by connecting thousands of pipes in the interior. Automatic steam doors can only do simple tasks such as opening and closing the door. But a computer can be built when it’s possible to carry out more complex tasks such as simultaneously opening two doors with a single rope or making a safety door that does not close when a person is under the door. Ropes and steam pipes basically play the role of basic devices corresponding to a vacuum tube.

▲ Figure 3. An automatic steam door that opens multiple doors with one operation (left),
and an automatic door that opens only when two operators agree to open the door (right)

So, how can the performance of a steam computer be enhanced while adding extra functions to it? The number of steam tubes could be increased to add more functions, or a boiler with a higher pressure and temperature could be installed to increase the speed at which the steam rises. The problem with these solutions is that they are not easy.

Steam engines are very large by themselves, so adding a tube from the boiler to another area creates an even bigger burden on space. It requires too much energy, and the risks of explosion or other malfunctions also increase when trying to enhance the performance of the boiler. Vacuum tubes were merely the best devices available to engineers at the time. As they operate on electricity, there are no risks of explosions like with a high-pressure boiler. And the operating speed was clearly faster than the steam engine. Of course, there were frequent accidents such as individual vacuum tubes malfunctioning due to too much power being used. To make a better computer, it was necessary to find more advanced components.

In 1947, the transistor was invented. Transistors were innovative devices that could regulate the flow of large currents with very small currents. Scientists found that by using two types of semiconductor materials, as shown below, it was quite easy to disconnect and connect signals. Although the structure may look complex, the nature of its operation is essentially the same as controlling the movement of steam by pulling a rope. In the same year that the first transistor was invented, the BJT^* (Bipolar Junction Transistor), which is widely used to this day, was also invented. At this juncture, semiconductors also began to be known by the public.

^*BJT: The Bipolar Junction Transistor, within a semiconductor is a transistor made by using a PN junction, or the boundary between two domains of a P-type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor.

▲ Figure 4. The structure of the transistor. Both N-type and P-type semiconductors are used.
(Source of the right image: The Understanding of the Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, p. 143, Table 4-6)

Semiconductors for everyone: MOSFET’s Revolution and Its Manufacturing Technology

While working at Bell Labs in 1959, Dr. Martin Mohammed John Atalla and Dr. Dawon David Kahng developed a new type of transistor called the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor). The two scientists formed two types of semiconductor layers on a silicon disk and then placed metal on top of it to create a flat transistor. Although the operating principle of this transistor was slightly different, its usage was not too distinct from the transistors introduced above. But what made this transistor stand out was its productivity.

▲ Figure 5. Dr. Dawon Kahng’s MOSFET model structure (Source: Hanol Publishing Co., Ltd.)

Due to their flatness, numerous MOSFETs could be made on a silicon wafer simultaneously. If the outline could be made smaller, it was possible to make ten times more MOSFETs on wafers of the same size. Additionally, a set of already-connected MOSFETs could be manufactured simultaneously as well. Let’s say a CPU needs to be built using a BJT. No matter how efficient the BJT’s production process is, it’s necessary to solder hundreds of millions of BJTs together and attach them to the circuit board, as CPUs were made by connecting BJTs. As for MOSFETs, hundreds of millions of transistors are already soldered to the circuit board when they are produced.

Eventually, the whole point of semiconductor factories is to make MOSFETs more affordable. The succeeding chapters will explain how terms like exposure, etching, deposition, and other processes of making semiconductors contributed to producing affordable MOSFETs.

Read articles from the Front-End Process series

Read articles from the Back-End Process series

The post Semiconductor Front-End Process Episode 1: The Birth of Computers, Transistors, and Semiconductors first appeared on SK hynix Newsroom.

From then on, SK hynix has been reinforcing its technological leadership by introducing a series of world’s first, smallest, fastest, and lowest-power innovations in the semiconductor industry. At SK hynix, we’re in a state of constant movement – learning, searching, refining, questioning and creating. Constantly charging towards “the next big thing,” we systematically seek out new technology and work studiously to implement it.

In this article, we look at the biggest revolutions over the last few several years, and how our company has been at the forefront of them all. Our industry has always been very dynamic, where things change rapidly, but as we’ve been in the industry for nearly 40 years, we’ve learned how to adjust quickly to meet the needs of our customers and embrace emerging technology.

1. Video Game Revolution

From bringing Nintendo to Korea with the Hyundai Comboy in 1989, to providing the top tier SSD’s for modern gamers with the Gold S31 and P31, SK hynix has always been a true game-changer. Now, the era of gaming continues to bloom. With the increased popularity of open-world titles and game modes, gamers are continually looking for powerful memory and increased reliability in their technology, allowing them to play with minimal difficulties.

As the video game population grows rapidly, the gaming hardware market is tenacious to keep up. Solid-state drives (SSD) are leading this growth as the technology is extremely versatile across a variety of high-performance devices and provides a faster speed to reduce the interference of the game.

“The video games revolution has a significant impact on the SSD market; and in taking an important part in SSD section, we at SK hynix are proud to be one of the drivers of the technological innovations in the video games sector,” said Alexander Sapozhnikov, Functional Manager, FW Development at SK hynix memory solutions Eastern Europe. “By adopting SSDs, the gaming industry has seen a significant increase in loading bandwidth with predicted QoS, which allows showing higher quality content at a faster rate.”
SK hynix entered the SSD market for the first time in 2012, and since then, we have become the world’s leading memory provider by rigorously producing products that require proven performance, reliability and durability. During that period, our focus centered on server clients and PC OEMs (original equipment manufacturer) to provide enterprise and client SSD.

However, since 2019, SK hynix has pivoted into the consumer SSD market, with the launch of the SK hynix Gold S31 SSD, and more recently, the groundbreaking launch of the Gold P31 SSD just last month. The world’s first 128-layer NAND Flash-based consumer SSD, P31 is one of the fastest and most innovative consumer SSDs on the market.

“The video game industry is rapidly increasing the quality and reality of its scenes, thus new challenges are coming,” exclaimed Mr. Sapozhnikov. “The gamer’s needs are challenging and to help to solve them, we have talented and curious engineers and mathematicians on board.”
By maintaining a laser-sharp focus on our semiconductor innovations for nearly 40 years, SK hynix has continually refined its reputation, and with its Gold SSDs, SK hynix is again pushing the envelope on performance and durability through every title, every save, and every boss battle.

2. Dot Com Boom and personal computers

The creation of the internet changed the world like few times ever before as it began turning into a place where computers exist everywhere. The internet instantly ingrained itself into culture, becoming the largest news channel, research library, social club, shopping center, and multimedia kiosk. It disrupted our daily lives for the better with the increased use of personal computers, and in turn memory.

In the early 2000s, our developers anticipated that this DRAM technology will be suitable for multiple cost-effective computing platforms of the future. As we always do, we collaborated with our partners to help ensure that the DRAM roadmap was consistent with microprocessor and system architecture evolution in a variety of future systems.

“We have broadened the breadth and depth of collaboration with industry leaders in order to develop better products to meet customer demands and help industrial development, which has been triggered by this revolution,” stated Minho Kim, Project Leader, Server Product Planning at SK hynix Inc. “In this process, SK hynix executives and employees have devoted enthusiasm for the past 40 years, having made great efforts; And as a result, we are leading technology industry in the computing and server markets, including developing the world’s first DDR5 DRAM.”

Computing memories used in PCs and servers are continually evolving high performance and high-capacity data processing. Initially, starting with Single Data Rate (SDR) DRAMs and quickly advancing as the CPU’s processing speed increased. DRAM required faster processing speeds as well as higher memory bandwidth to keep up with demands.

Over the years, the industry has iterated newer, faster products like DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, which have continued to accelerate clock speed and meet the demand of consumers. The data generated annually is doubling every two years, and at the end of 2020, we were expected reach 44 zettabytes, or 44 trillion gigabytes.

3. Smartphone Revolution

The proliferation of smartphones in the late 2000s, suddenly had millions of people around the world equipped with a high-performance computer and camera that could fit into the palm of their hand. The wealth of data on the internet was instantly in your pocket, and photography was no longer restricted to photographers with the easy transfer of visual information widely available.

“LPDDR development began to secure the portability of smartphones, and LPDDR now occupies a large part in other markets such as notebooks and automotive,” said Jason Lee, Technical Leader, Mobile Product Planning at SK hynix Inc. “Recently, the demand of such LPDDR memories has been propelled by COVID-19-induced stay-at-home activities and the customers are increasingly demanding high-end applications for smartphones and notebooks. In line with this, SK hynix is always striving to lead such market changes and provide quality products to customers.”

The explosive growth of mobile markets such as mobile phones and tablets has contributed to the development of the mobile application memory field. The demand for mobile-oriented NAND is expected to increase as well since the trend of flagship smartphones, such as multiple camera adoption, would require more capacity.

SK hynix is increasing the level of integration of the CIS pixels through the continuous development of device and process technologies and supporting various application fields through the ISP technology development. SK hynix’s CIS will be utilized in various application fields including smartphone cameras to contribute to the creation of economic and social value and to grow as a key component of information sensors in the future.

4. The 4th Industrial Revolution

At SK hynix, we must acutely understand these technologies as we work with partners to bring the 4th industrial revolution to life. Industries such as artificial intelligence, AR/VR, autonomous vehicles, big data, IoT and 5G are expected to lead the future. Together, as a company, we have used our collective power to drive the 4th industrial revolution, pushing the world into an altogether novel chapter of progress and innovation.

“Collecting, storing, transferring and computing data efficiently just becomes ever more essential and pressing with the pace of industrial digitization,” said Jingjian Ren, Senior Staff Engineer, from NAND Algorithm & Failure Analysis Team in Firmware Group at SK hynix memory solutions America. “The data is big – a few Exabytes are being generated every day, and the data is fast – it has to be processed at the speed of thought to adapt to the need of real-time decision-making particularly in light of AI adoption. Therefore, advanced memory and storage technologies/solutions are playing an increasingly critical role.”

The expansion of the 4th industrial revolution technology will continue to see semiconductor memory prosper. By delivering innovative, high-performance and reliable products to our customers, SK hynix will continue to be a leader in the industry.
SK hynix has always been the world’s top tier semiconductor supplier among Dynamic Random Access Memory chips (“DRAM”) and with our NAND flash business, we will work to build a new future together. We will proactively respond to various needs from customers and optimize our business structure, expanding our innovative portfolio in the NAND flash market segment, which will rival what we have achieved in DRAM.

“As an employee, I’m proud to see that our company SK hynix, a pioneer in the semiconductor memory domain, has always been committed to exploring and enabling new paths to serving our customers and partners with our cutting-edge DRAM/3D NAND/next-generation NVM solutions,” affirmed Mr. Ren. “We will keep confronting the tremendous opportunities as well as challenges while riding on this 4th wave of another great revolution in human history.”

As we look ahead into the years to come, we are confident that the industry will keep growing exponentially as it looks to bring forward the next generations of technology. From 2021 and beyond, there are going to be many new applications being rolled out in these industries, and they will all require more memory, higher performance, higher capacity and a lower latency.

Our continued commitment

These are just a few of the many ways in which SK hynix has continually defined technology and been at the forefront of technological revolutions. Revolution is at the core of all our products – and at the core of our entire business.

Our proven track record of bringing our exceptional, high-performance, reliable products to more people in even bigger, bolder ways dates back nearly 40 years, and we’re not stopping there. SK hynix will continue to focus on our key technology competitiveness while developing next-generation technology.

While no one knows for sure what the next revolution will bring, but we certainly can say that the innovations of SK hynix will be at its core.

The post SK hynix: Leading Revolutions for Nearly 40 Years first appeared on SK hynix Newsroom.