Nobel Prize winners. Architects of Silicon Valley. Trailblazing companies. And countless teams of innovative engineers. These are some of the major figures and players who have played a key role in the history of semiconductors through to the present day. This first episode of the Semiconductor 101 series explores the “who’s who” in the world of semiconductors, covering everything from the inventor of the first semiconductor device to today’s major consumers of semiconductor memory.

Who were the inventors of the first semiconductor device and semiconductor memory product?

First Semiconductor Device

While there are differing accounts on the inventor of the first semiconductor device, German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun invented what is widely considered to be the first-ever semiconductor diode¹ in 1874. When he probed a lead sulfide crystal with the point of a thin metal wire, Braun found that current flowed freely in only one direction. Through this experiment, he discovered the rectification² effect at the point of contact between metals and certain crystal materials. Braun would have to wait until the advent of radio in the early 1900s to see the first practical application of his device, as it was then used as a signal detector in a basic radio set.

First Transistor

Around 70 years later, a landmark breakthrough in semiconductor history occurred at U.S. industrial research company Bell Labs. Under the supervision of William Bradford Shockley, scientists John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain invented the world’s first transistor³, known as the point-contact transistor, in 1947. They would later go on to receive the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for this invention which welcomed in a new era for electronics.

First Semiconductor Memory Product

In the mid-20th century, the first prototypes of semiconductor memory emerged that allowed computers to store data. In 1963, the American engineer Robert H. Norman invented the integrated bipolar static random access memory (SRAM)⁴. Three years later, IBM’s Robert Heath Dennard invented the world’s first dynamic random access memory (DRAM)⁵ which led to Intel’s development of a 1-kilobit (125 bytes) DRAM chip in 1970.

(From left) Scientists John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain, inventors of the first transistor, at Bell Labs in 1948 (Source: AT&T)

Who are the most influential figures in the history of the semiconductor industry?

Numerous figures have contributed to the development of the semiconductor industry, but one of the most notable names to stand out from the list is Gordon Moore. A pioneer in silicon chips and transistors, Moore predicted in 1975 that the number of transistors on a microchip would double approximately every two years. Dubbed Moore’s Law, the forecast remains a guiding principle for the industry as manufacturers continually innovate to miniaturize transistors for ever-smaller chips. Moore is also renowned for co-founding Fairchild Semiconductors and Intel, laying the foundations for the world‘s technology epicenter, Silicon Valley.

The integrated circuit was invented by Jack Kilby in 1958 (Credit: Texas Instruments, Source: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution)

Another key figure to have changed the course of semiconductor history is American electrical engineer Jack Kilby. In 1958, Kilby demonstrated that many transistors, resistors, and capacitors could be grouped on a single board of semiconductor material when he invented the integrated circuit (IC). His revolutionary invention during his time at semiconductor company Texas Instruments has become a foundational component in today’s computers and other electronic equipment. In recognition of his work in inventing the IC, Kilby received the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Additionally, the Korean-American inventor Dawon Kahng developed the first practical field-effect transistor, a device that controls electronic signals. While his invention was not immediately embraced upon its unveiling in 1960, it has become one of the most widely-used integrated circuits. Today, it is better known as the MOSFET⁶.

Gordon Moore, Jack Kilby, and Dawon Kahng are among the most notable names in semiconductor history

Who works at semiconductor companies?

Measuring just nanometers (one billionth of a meter), semiconductors are applied to the most advanced electronic systems. So, who are the people with the capabilities to make these highly intricate and complex devices? Perhaps unsurprisingly, the majority of employees at semiconductor companies are engineers who work on different stages of production. Let’s take SK hynix as an example.

Design & R&D

Design engineers oversee the analog and digital design of semiconductors, including the circuit design and digital intellectual property (IP) of the microchips. As their title suggests, R&D process engineers research and develop materials and the numerous processes that are required to manufacture semiconductors.

Production, Packaging & Testing

Package and test engineers optimize the packaging process and test for defects in products. There are also engineers specifically assigned to manage the mass production and quality assurance of products to ensure a smooth manufacturing process. Furthermore, application engineers raise the standard of products by evaluating them when they are applied to customer systems such as computers, mobile phones, and graphic cards.

Non-Engineering Roles

Apart from engineers, there are a number of other roles at semiconductor companies. These include positions related to sales and marketing, sustainability, technology certification, finance, and safety.

Engineers account for the majority of roles at semiconductor memory companies

Who are the major companies in the semiconductor supply chain?

Today, there are several semiconductor companies responsible for different aspects of the chip development process. In terms of foundries⁷, Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) is a global logic foundry which operates large-scale fabrication plants, or fabs, with the capacity to produce millions of wafers per year.

There are also fabless companies such as NVIDIA and Qualcomm which do not manufacture their own physical chips and, instead, focus on chip design and innovation, while outsourcing their manufacturing to specialized foundries. Others take on smaller pieces of the supply chain puzzle such as outsourced semiconductor assembly and test (OSAT) companies that specialize in providing third-party packaging and testing services for semiconductor manufacturers. Some notable OSAT companies include ASE Technology Holding and Amkor Technology.

Cadence and Synopsys are electronic design automation (EDA) companies that provide software tools, techniques, and methodologies for designing key components such as integrated circuits and printed circuit boards. Finally, semiconductor equipment manufacturers such as Applied Materials, Lam Research, Tokyo Electron, and ASML design, produce, and sell machinery and tools required for the fabrication and testing of semiconductor devices.

As for SK hynix, it is classed as an integrated device manufacturer (IDM) that is capable of handling both the design and production of chips at its in-house facilities. This integrated approach has played a major role in the company establishing itself as a leading provider of advanced DRAM solutions, such as the leading AI memory HBM⁸, and NAND flash⁹.

A network of companies make up the global semiconductor supply chain

Who are the major consumers of semiconductor (memory)?

A glance at the world’s major semiconductor buyers shows that while global tech companies such as Apple, Dell, Sony, and Lenovo top the list, there are also a significant number of major PC and smartphone original equipment manufacturers (OEM). These OEMs require microprocessors, memory chips, and various other types of semiconductors for their devices to handle the immense storage and processing demands.

In addition, telecommunications companies use semiconductor chips in a variety of equipment and devices to facilitate data encoding, encryption, transmission, and more. The automotive industry is also increasingly using next-generation chips for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in autonomous vehicles, enabling collision avoidance, parking assistance, and other driver aids. Moreover, manufacturers of home appliance such as refrigerators and air conditioners use different chips for temperature control, timers, automated features, and so on.

Finally, semiconductor memory products are a key component for AI applications such as ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini, and Microsoft Copilot. They enable the storage and quick retrieval of datasets, allowing AI systems to efficiently process data. Furthermore, SK hynix’s lineup of high-performance memory solutions are ideal for AI training and inference¹⁰ as they can rapidly access and handle data. Companies that provide AI applications and services also manage data centers that contain thousands of servers packed with CPUs¹¹ and GPUs¹², so DRAM memory chips and solid-state drives (SSD)¹³ are needed to process the immense amount of data.

The electronics, AI, telecommunications, and automotive industries are among the main consumers of semiconductors

¹Semiconductor diode: A simple electronic component that conducts electricity in one direction.
²Rectification: The conversion of an alternating current to a direct current.
³Transistor: A semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals.
⁴Static random access memory (SRAM): Volatile memory that holds memory permanently as long as power is supplied. Unlike DRAM, it does not have to be refreshed periodically to keep storing data.
⁵Dynamic random access memory (DRAM): Volatile memory that needs to be refreshed periodically to maintain stored data. Like SRAM, it loses stored data when the power supply is removed.
⁶Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET): An active semiconductor device in which a conducting channel is induced in the region between two electrodes by a voltage applied to an insulated electrode on the surface of the region.
⁷Foundry: Companies that manufacture semiconductor products as a service. They do not design chips like fabless companies.
⁸High Bandwidth Memory (HBM): A high-value, high-performance product that revolutionizes data processing speeds by connecting multiple DRAM chips with through-silicon via (TSV).
⁹NAND flash memory: A type of non-volatile storage technology that does not require power to retain data.
¹⁰AI inference: The process of running live data through a trained AI model to make a prediction or solve a task.
¹¹Central processing unit (CPU): A hardware component that’s the core computational unit in a server.
¹²Graphics processing unit (GPU): A computer chip that renders computer graphics and images by performing mathematical calculations.
¹³Solid-state drive (SSD): A non-volatile storage device used in computers that stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory.

Having looked at “who” is important in the semiconductor industry, the next episode will ask “what” is crucial in the world of semiconductors.

<Other articles from this series>

[Semiconductor 101] SK hynix Explains “What’s What” in the Semiconductor World

[Semiconductor 101] When Semiconductors & SK hynix Made Their Mark on the World

The post [Semiconductor 101] SK hynix’s Guide to Who’s Who in the Semiconductor Industry first appeared on SK hynix Newsroom.

But how familiar people are about the history and rise of semiconductors is a different matter. To provide more context on these indispensable materials that power everything from household appliances to mobile phones, this series will trace back the origins of semiconductors and explain why they became such a significant part of everyday life as we know it.

Starting with ‘Computers and Transistors,’ a total of six chapters including ‘Process and Oxidation,’ ‘Photolithography,’ ’Etching,’ ‘Deposition,’ and ‘Metal Wiring’ will help explain the nature and processes of semiconductors. This series will put a special focus on the correlations between all of these technologies.

The Advent of Computers

As people continuously look for ways to simplify their day-to-day activities at home, work, and wherever they need to go, the need for technological devices has always been on the minds of innovative thinkers. Starting with simple machines that only knew how to make basic calculations, people eventually progressed to developing more advanced and accurate machines that would become of more practical use.

Inventing such a machine required tremendous contributions from various people. A major experiment that came out from one of these individuals was Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine in 1871. Users could insert a thin plate called a punched card into the machine and perform a numerical calculation. When inserted into the machine, the inner analysis engine repeats various arithmetic operations according to specific commands and a result value is printed out from another part of the machine.

Although the Analytical Engine was never manufactured, it stands as an interesting case study. First, the Analytical Engine has all the elements of a computer. The punched card and the part of the engine where the result value is printed out is the same concept as the computer memory. So, the Analytical Engine is essentially the primitive CPU^* (Central Processing Unit).

^*CPU: Abbreviation for Central Processing Unit. A device that acts as the computer’s brain.

Simply put, the Analytical Engine was a computer that operated on steam and consisted of a memory and CPU unit made from pieces of metal and wood. Consequently, we can assume that people in the past knew how computers structurally functioned. It’s also clear that computers and ‘electronic circuits’ are completely different concepts. Therefore, there’s a need to know why electronic circuits became the heart of the modern computer.

Electrically Controlled Computers

Electronic circuits have advantages over other devices based on steam, manpower, or hydraulic power, because the control of signals is fast and efficient. Looking at steam, reaction rates are slow, as steam needs to physically reach a specific location. Furthermore, since steam is transmitted at a high pressure, the pipes need to be thick and, overall, it lacks efficiency. Now, let’s suppose there’s a device that opens and closes its door automatically when a rope is pulled. If steam is used as the energy source here, the operator will have to open the boiler valve and wait for the high-pressure steam to push the door in order for it to be closed. But when electricity is the energy source, a button and a motor is all that is required. The size of the entire device becomes smaller, while energy efficiency and reaction speed both increase.

▲ Figure 1. A steam-based automatic door (left) and an electric automatic door (right)

With the invention of electricity, controlling computers with it became the general trend. After numerous attempts to create an electricity-based computer, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was eventually made. Unlike the Analytical Engine that used gears and steam, the ENIAC operated through the combination of a type of light bulb called the vacuum tube and various electronic circuits. By looking at the components of the ENIAC that resemble light bulbs, it’s quite clear that its energy source was electricity.

▲ Figure 2. ENIAC (Source: View Original Document)

The ENIAC was a huge computer that almost took up a whole room and used up to 170 kW of electricity, equivalent to operating 170 microwave ovens. Nevertheless, it was able to accomplish numerous tasks that were needed back then. Its operation speed was still a lot faster as it used more than 170,000 vacuum tubes instead of gears that squeaked and moved slowly. Since its development, the ENIAC contributed towards achieving many milestones, including formulation of the simulation methodology.

However, we know that the ENIAC’s performance was not even a match for the portable calculators of the 1990s. Efficiency was a major issue, and it wasn’t possible to supply these commodities on a large scale due to their size. This is why the world needed another innovation called the transistor.

The Emergence of Transistors

As aforementioned, the ENIAC was built using a vacuum tube similar to a light bulb. But it’s important to know why these devices were needed in the first place. People knew that the ability to control signals would lead to the creation of some type of computing device, such as the automatic steam door that we looked at above.

Thus, a computer is basically a device that adds a lot of inputs and outputs to an automatic steam door along with various logical structures that are added by connecting thousands of pipes in the interior. Automatic steam doors can only do simple tasks such as opening and closing the door. But a computer can be built when it’s possible to carry out more complex tasks such as simultaneously opening two doors with a single rope or making a safety door that does not close when a person is under the door. Ropes and steam pipes basically play the role of basic devices corresponding to a vacuum tube.

▲ Figure 3. An automatic steam door that opens multiple doors with one operation (left),
and an automatic door that opens only when two operators agree to open the door (right)

So, how can the performance of a steam computer be enhanced while adding extra functions to it? The number of steam tubes could be increased to add more functions, or a boiler with a higher pressure and temperature could be installed to increase the speed at which the steam rises. The problem with these solutions is that they are not easy.

Steam engines are very large by themselves, so adding a tube from the boiler to another area creates an even bigger burden on space. It requires too much energy, and the risks of explosion or other malfunctions also increase when trying to enhance the performance of the boiler. Vacuum tubes were merely the best devices available to engineers at the time. As they operate on electricity, there are no risks of explosions like with a high-pressure boiler. And the operating speed was clearly faster than the steam engine. Of course, there were frequent accidents such as individual vacuum tubes malfunctioning due to too much power being used. To make a better computer, it was necessary to find more advanced components.

In 1947, the transistor was invented. Transistors were innovative devices that could regulate the flow of large currents with very small currents. Scientists found that by using two types of semiconductor materials, as shown below, it was quite easy to disconnect and connect signals. Although the structure may look complex, the nature of its operation is essentially the same as controlling the movement of steam by pulling a rope. In the same year that the first transistor was invented, the BJT^* (Bipolar Junction Transistor), which is widely used to this day, was also invented. At this juncture, semiconductors also began to be known by the public.

^*BJT: The Bipolar Junction Transistor, within a semiconductor is a transistor made by using a PN junction, or the boundary between two domains of a P-type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor.

▲ Figure 4. The structure of the transistor. Both N-type and P-type semiconductors are used.
(Source of the right image: The Understanding of the Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, p. 143, Table 4-6)

Semiconductors for everyone: MOSFET’s Revolution and Its Manufacturing Technology

While working at Bell Labs in 1959, Dr. Martin Mohammed John Atalla and Dr. Dawon David Kahng developed a new type of transistor called the MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor). The two scientists formed two types of semiconductor layers on a silicon disk and then placed metal on top of it to create a flat transistor. Although the operating principle of this transistor was slightly different, its usage was not too distinct from the transistors introduced above. But what made this transistor stand out was its productivity.

▲ Figure 5. Dr. Dawon Kahng’s MOSFET model structure (Source: Hanol Publishing Co., Ltd.)

Due to their flatness, numerous MOSFETs could be made on a silicon wafer simultaneously. If the outline could be made smaller, it was possible to make ten times more MOSFETs on wafers of the same size. Additionally, a set of already-connected MOSFETs could be manufactured simultaneously as well. Let’s say a CPU needs to be built using a BJT. No matter how efficient the BJT’s production process is, it’s necessary to solder hundreds of millions of BJTs together and attach them to the circuit board, as CPUs were made by connecting BJTs. As for MOSFETs, hundreds of millions of transistors are already soldered to the circuit board when they are produced.

Eventually, the whole point of semiconductor factories is to make MOSFETs more affordable. The succeeding chapters will explain how terms like exposure, etching, deposition, and other processes of making semiconductors contributed to producing affordable MOSFETs.

Read articles from the Front-End Process series

Read articles from the Back-End Process series

The post Semiconductor Front-End Process Episode 1: The Birth of Computers, Transistors, and Semiconductors first appeared on SK hynix Newsroom.